Marxist psychology

by Spiro Anthony

This is the text of a paper delivered at the Millennium World 
Conference in Critical Psychology held in Sydney
from 30 April to 2 May 1999.

Marxism is a set of principles which apply to all of the natural world, 
including human life and society.

As with the Marxist study of economics, history, sociology and other 
spheres of human activity, the Marxist approach to psychology is based on 
dialectical and historical materialism.

Materialism holds that there is an objective reality which exists outside 
of perception. Dialectical materialism states that all things are in a 
constant state of change and that change occurs according to certain laws 
and patterns. Historical materialism is the application of dialectical 
materialism to society.

In psychology, the application of dialectical and historical materialism 
allows us to take up the fundamental questions that have confronted 
psychology over the years. It sets a philosophical basis for psychology. It 
can also be regarded as a school of psychology for it takes up issues 
addressed by the various schools — what motivates human activity, why 
people behave and think as they do. It provides us with ways to analyse 
psychological phenomena and it indicates ways in which psychological 
therapy can best proceed.

It is fundamental in Marxism to recognise that there are two basic factors 
that are operating in human mentality and behaviour. These are the 
objective factor and the subjective factor.

The objective factor refers to the actual circumstances pertaining at the 
time. People are born and develop within the context of objective 
circumstances, which are the physical environment and society. Objective 
circumstances serve to guide and shape the individual. On the whole, people 
who are exposed to the same circumstances, live in the same historical 
period, the same social and cultural context, think and act differently to 
those who live under different objective circumstances. The slave in Roman 
days would have had a different outlook on life to the feudal lord in 
England and to the university student in Sydney in 1999 because the 
objective factors are different.

Now the subjective factor. Within the framework of the given objective 
circumstances, the human being has choices. There is a free, rational and 
creative element. The human perceives, thinks, experiences feelings and 
acts. This is the subjective factor, and this is vital in understanding 
human life and society.

The two factors, objective and subjective, combine to make the individual 
what he or she is. It is not just a matter of recognising the existence of 
each factor, but a question of how the two relate. What we say in Marxism 
is that the two factors form a dialectical unity. Each requires the other 
and at the same time there is constant interaction between the two.

Looking at society as a whole, we see that there have been and continue to 
be constant changes through the activity of people. This activity arises 
from the thoughts and feelings of people in relation to their objective 
circumstances. Society changes through this activity; people are actively 
involved in creating new forms of culture, social, political and economic 
life. Marx said that the history and future of society, in other words the 
whole span of human life, consists of the activity of people pursuing their 
ever developing needs. The masses make history. People help to shape the 
objective world rather than just respond to it.

The dialectical approach is also applied to the fundamental philosophical 
issue — the relationship between mind (thought) and body, or mind and 
brain. The Marxist position is that mind is created by brain and mentality 
is dependent upon the functioning of the brain. Mental activity is a 
reflection of reality and at the same time causes a response to reality. 
There is a dialectical relation between reflecting reality and the role of 
mental activity in changing reality.

For example, your brain allows you to reflect the reality that there is a 
soft drink in front of you and by deciding to drink it and making it 
invisible to you and the person next to you, you change the objective 
world. You change the objective world for yourself, for the person next to 
you — and for the soft drink manufacturer who will reflect on what has 
happened and set about making more soft drinks.

So there is change and development through the interaction of the objective 
and subjective factors. It is also the case that through activity, the 
brain itself changes. The evolutionary development of the human species has 
come about through the increased complexity of human activity, which has 
gone hand in hand with the growth in the size and physical complexity of 
the brain. There is evidence nowadays that even the mature adult brain in 
an individual can change in physical complexity according to the 
individual's lifestyle.

The person's biological disposition, the brain, level of maturation and 
genetic factors are all part of the individual's objective circumstances. 
Biological conditions need to be considered along with the person's social 
situation, culture, background and other circumstances that constitute the 
objective reality in which the person functions.

By way of summary, Marxism holds that mental life exists and that mind, 
which is made up of cognitions and feelings, is a product of the brain and 
dependent upon the brain. Mind reflects reality and at the same time 
generates activity which in turn changes reality. A person is influenced by 
his or her own biology and circumstances in life and at the same time acts 
to change these circumstances. This is the Marxist concept of the person.

Following on from these basic propositions, the application of Marxist 
psychology involves certain methodological principles. These principles, 
again, are based on dialectical materialism.

A first principle is that psychological phenomena are not something 
abstract or timeless, but should be seen as objective phenomena existing in 
a specific time, place and set of circumstances.

It is important in psychology not to over-generalise, for example, by 
making global statements concerning intrinsic human nature, or assume that 
psychological phenomena exist in the same form across all cultures and 
social systems. Psychological phenomena are complex and need to be studied 
objectively in relation to time and place.

Even with psychological conditions which are heavily influenced by 
biological or genetic factors, we find that their manifestation in day to 
day life is shaped by the situational factors.

For instance, the form of psychotic hallucinations and psychotic behaviour 
differs according to circumstances and prevailing cultural and moral 
values.

Those who have studied dialectical categories would see that I am referring 
to the category of the universal and the particular, or if you like the 
general and the specific.

Another principle is the necessity to focus on the whole person in all of 
his or her interrelationships. Nothing exists in isolation. While you might 
pick out particular psychological phenomena for study purposes, a valid 
assessment can only be made when the person or psychological phenomenon is 
seen in all interconnections.

Dialectical method draws attention to the operation of systems in which 
everything within that system needs to be taken into account, as well as 
the outside influences upon that system. This refers to the dialectical 
category of the parts and the whole.

So when we consider the individual, the focus is on the individual in 
totality — all the objective factors including family, peers, work, 
schooling, culture, class, and so forth as well as biological factors, plus 
the person's own thoughts, feelings and behaviour.

But the question is not just what factors are influential in explaining 
psychological phenomena but how these factors interrelate.

In explaining interrelationships we need to introduce a few more 
principles. Firstly, all things exist in motion, that is, things exist in a 
constant state of change. Secondly, there are contradictory forces within 
all things and these contradictory forces constitute the thing; and 
thirdly, change takes place through struggle between these contradictory 
forces. In Marxism we refer to this as the unity and struggle of opposites. 
This has profound implications for psychology.

The task of psychology is to uncover the contradictory forces in order to 
determine general principles of development and in understanding the 
individual. We want to know which are the relevant contradictions and how 
are they operating.

In the natural sciences, dialectical processes have been largely accepted. 
For instance in chemistry there is the concept that things are constituted 
by positive and negative ions which are in a constant state of motion and 
conflict.

So what are the contradictions we find in psychology? The contradiction 
between instincts and rationality, between cognition and emotion, between 
heredity and environment, the struggle between the biological and the 
psychological, between the individual and the social.

What Marxism says is that the question is not nature or nurture, but both. 
The influence of both is normal in the human being and the struggle between 
both is normal. There is a life-long struggle between nature and nurture.

And so with the individual and social. There is a contradiction between 
individual interests and social pressures, which we need first to recognise 
and then try to find out how these forces are in conflict.

We need to look at how the individual is drawn between his own interests 
and social pressures, how the struggle between nature and nurture is 
affecting the human being, how the person is coping with both conscious and 
unconscious drives operating at the same time.

In normal psychological functioning, the unity and struggle of opposites is 
proceeding. Where there are psychological disorders, we must look at what 
conflicting forces are likely to be causing the disorders.

There is another concept that needs to be introduced here. It is the 
distinction between non-antagonistic and antagonist contradictions. While 
struggle between conflicting forces is ongoing and causes constant motion 
and change, if the contradictions are not antagonistic there is no 
qualitative change. You might say there is evolutionary change. But where 
the contradictions are antagonistic, the struggle will reach such a point 
that the thing will change in its very nature. There will be a qualitative 
change. It will change abruptly. We talk about a dialectical leap, which is 
a sudden jump in development.

These leaps are not hard to recognise in the natural world. For instance 
there is a dialectical leap when water turns to steam as a certain 
temperature is reached. Quantitative change leads to qualitative change.

In psychology, we can also see such leaps. In child development, an infant 
suddenly takes a first step, suddenly pronounces a word and so forth. In 
perception and learning, there are sudden qualitative changes. Even in 
therapy this phenomenon has been recognised. Psychoanalysts have observed 
that after long periods of therapy a patient suddenly manifests a 
"corrective emotional experience". In these examples the contradictions 
would have been antagonistic but the outcome could be regarded as positive. 
Some contradictions develop in such a way that the result is psychological 
disorder. In clinical assessment we need to look for those contradictions 
which have resulted in the psychological problems.

Let me give you one example from the area of personality development.

From conception to birth, the individual is strongly dependent on others 
for survival. As well as physical dependency, emotional dependency 
develops. The new born becomes emotionally attached to the parents, 
particularly the mother. But as a separate individual, independent 
thinking, feelings and behaviour begin to develop. The contradiction 
between dependence and independence develops. This is normal.

The individual proceeds through stages of development with qualitatively 
new features at each stage. For instance in adolescence, the 
dependence/independence conflict in many societies becomes rather acute 
because of increased social pressures to be independent. But the conflict 
does not cease — it stays throughout life. It is normal — the need to 
belong and to be emotionally dependent on others, together with the need to 
do things on your own without emotional support. Hopefully this conflict 
unfolds in a way that the person develops a satisfactory self-concept and 
can relate to other people without too many anxieties.

What happens if there is a distortion in the dependence/independence 
conflict along the way? If a young child loses a parent, the conflict will 
not develop in the normal way and there could well be long term disturbance 
of self-concept. Excessive dependency or unsatisfied dependency needs can 
lead to anxiety and personality disorders, whereas excessive independence 
at a young age can lead to anti-social personality disorder. In other 
words, there can be qualitatively different personality formations.

Dialectical method can help to uncover the essence of human development by 
prompting us to search for the contradictions which become the driving 
force in the person's development.

It should be understood that while Marxism teaches us to look at things in 
totality and to consider all interrelationships, Marxism does not advocate 
eclecticism. Psychological phenomena are complex and involve many factors, 
but this is not to say that all factors have equal weight. Rather, the task 
is to determine the main factors in development. We look for the main 
contradictions which make the decisive impact on development.

Even when we identify the main forces that are involved, there is still 
more to find out, because each of the forces does not have equal 
significance in a cause and effect relationship.

Take the example of the dependence/independence conflict. The two forces do 
not have equal weight. If we look closely we can see there is a special 
relationship, because one of them is more significant than the other. One 
of them can be regarded as primary and the other secondary. Dependency is a 
primary drive; independence develops from and as an antithesis to 
dependency. First a person is dependent and then independence develops. In 
philosophical terms, independence in human beings is the negation of 
dependence.

Take a broader example: the major contradiction we spoke of at the outset -
- the contradiction between the objective factor and the subjective factor 
— all the circumstances and pressures on an individual versus the 
individual's own mental activity and behaviour. Which of the two is 
primary? We say that the objective factor is primary, and this is why, as 
we noted earlier, people in similar social and historical conditions are 
fairly similar in their outlook. For there to be big changes in the outlook 
and values of people, there need to be qualitative changes in the objective 
nature of society.

I would like now to refer to the humanist orientation of Marxist 
psychology.

Marxist ideas were presented to the world last century as a theory which 
would not only serve to explain nature and society but would help people 
build a better society. The focus of Marxism has always been on the plight 
of oppressed and exploited people throughout the different stages of human 
history. Marxism calls for respect for the human condition and places 
confidence in people to determine their own destinies.

Marxist psychology values the individual and looks at psychology being 
applied in the interests of the people. It calls on psychologists to be 
active in defending the rights of people, particularly the working class 
and disadvantaged persons in society.

In clinical work, the focus is on respect for the individual, empathy and 
doing whatever is possible to help people who are suffering.

Turning now to Marxist approaches in the treatment of psychological 
disorders, we can say that the actual strategies or techniques adopted 
depend very much on the model of assessment that has been outlined.

Once assessment is completed, dialectical method helps us to organise our 
treatment strategies in a comprehensive and meaningful way. For instance 
you might work towards resolving anxiety disorder in a way that enhances 
family relationships, rather than treating problems in isolation or on an 
either/or basis.

The therapeutic techniques used will depend on treatment strategies, such 
that there may be counselling, insight therapy, behavioural and cognitive 
methods and so forth.

At the same time, we need to emphasise that the therapeutic approach is not 
eclectic because Marxist psychology is guided by certain theoretical and 
ideological concepts drawn from historical materialism. I'll mention a few 
special features which characterise the Marxist approach.

One is that there is a special role given to activity. As we have 
discussed, people are guided by objective circumstances, but the subjective 
factor — their own creative thinking and behaviour is very important. What 
a person actually does in life goes a long way in shaping the type of 
person that he or she is. Marxism encourages people to think creatively and 
to be engaged in practical activity as a means of overcoming specific 
problems.

Take for instance, a person presenting with low self-esteem and lack of 
confidence. Counselling may be helpful, but substantial change will most 
likely occur when the person actually does things to change his or her 
objective circumstances. And so in individual therapy we would look at 
encouraging practical activity, particularly activity in a social context, 
as a means of changing self-concept.

In his writings Marx did not give a lot of attention to psychological 
processes as such, but he did talk about the effects of alienation. He 
pointed out that the exploitation of labour creates a sense of alienation 
and he was concerned about this.

He was concerned because he held the view that the free, emancipated human 
being is capable of learning many skills and performing well in many 
occupations and in various scholastic, artistic and recreational pursuits. 
This is an important perspective in therapy as it encourages the 
psychologist to be innovative, and have faith in the ability of people to 
be active and creative in overcoming problems and in leading a fuller and 
more satisfying life.

I would like to conclude with some general comments about the role of 
theory.

Over the past 10 or 15 years, conservatism in western societies has 
prompted a strong trend towards pure empiricism in psychology and in 
reaction to this is the trend to absolutise the subjective experiences of 
the individual. These approaches undermine the role of theory because of 
their narrow and one-sided perspectives.

Psychology must have a definite and explicit theory which gives us a 
framework for understanding what human life is all about. There must be a 
theory which can draw together all the separate strands of psychology into 
a meaningful system. We need a dynamic model which can help us get to the 
essence of human behaviour and human problems.

Marxism has much to offer, not by taking a bit of Marxism here and a bit 
there, but by seeking to understand the entire philosophical and 
methodological system of Marxism.